Understanding Stress- The Fundamentals

Happiness consist in activity. It is a running stream, not a stagnant pool.
John Mason Good

We are all searching for happiness We all want to experience well-being and to develop our full potential, we all want to contribute and to be acknowledged. But what do we really need to happily flourish in a time of complexity and stress?

It is difficult to develop one’s personality freely, to be self-confident, to use one’s full potential even to blossom when one is exposed to stress factors such as excessive demands, fear, tension, insecurity or doubt. It’s hard to be and stay focused. Stress is not only a factor that restricts productivity, but can also impair physical functions, whether cardiovascular, gastrointensive or even edocrinological. This affects our decision making to a great extent. So we often look for relaxation and happiness exactly where we will not find it. Stress management is therefore one of the most important factors in effectively managing yourself as well as others.

Definition of Stress

Stress is defined by Nerdinger as a subjectively intensely uncomfortable state of tension, which arises from the fear that a highly aversive, temporally close and long-lasting situation is very likely not completely controllable, but avoiding it appears to be subjectively important.

All in all, the own available resources are insufficient to cope with a personal threat.

The forces of stress

According to the psychologist Kurt Lewin, individuals and organizations exist in an environment characterized by strengthening and opposing forces. These forces can motivate or hinder certain behaviors or a change in behavior. In general, Lewin assumed, the forces in the force field are in equilibrium, so that the performance changes especially when an imbalance occurs. For example, people can be afraid of change if the obstructing forces are greater than the supporting forces. In the Lewin model, stress is regarded as a “driving force” which, if used unrestrained, can lead to pathological results such as states of anxiety or even heart problems. Yet most people have developed a certain resilience in the form of opposing behaviors and circumstances. You can therefore respond appropriately to stress. Strong contrasts to the “driving force” stress can therefore reduce the negative effects to a considerable extent.

Concepts of Stress

Over 100 years ago first used in the psychological discourse by Cannon the term stress is subdivided into stressors (triggers for stress), reactions to stress and personal stress enhancers.
Based on this the theoretical discourse around the quantity of stress, theoretical approaches to stress can be subdivided in situational , reaction based and relational theories as well as additionally the transactional model of stress.

Situational Concepts of Stress

Situational approaches to research stress focus on the objective forces (risk factors of stress which inhibit stress such as certain life-events, chronical stressors or micro stressors such as daily hassels.

Life-Events

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe created a scale of major life events in the 1960s and assigned them values according to the stress they generate.
The death of a partner is the most stressful event, while minor violations of the law only result in a value of 11.
The health risk increases, the more points the individual collects on this scale.

Chronical Stress

The body is constantly in a state of physical arousal when the individual experiences stressors with frequency and intensity so that the atomic nervous system does not have a chance to react adequately.

Micro Stressors

Micro-Stressors are the small things, from being stuck in traffic to a messy house and notifications that pop up on our screens. They don’t necessarily feel like stress- but they are stress, whether we notice or not.

Critique

Due to the fact that all situational concepts of stress are based on an easy cause- effect understanding and do not take individual responses into consideration these approaches are highly criticized in the psychological literature.

Reactional Concept of Stress

According to Yerkes-Dodson Law by Hans Seyle, moderate stress and anxiety can be motivating. But stress and fear are also factors in unproductivity, paralysis and failure. Regarding the general adaption syndrome referencing the reaction of the autonomous nervous system he differentiated between eustress and distress.
In some cases, stress leads to an increasing phase of adaption to an high which then decreases to the phase of relaxation. In other cases, the stress builds up like a stair in an even higher amount of exhaustion (weakness of the whole system, comparable to organ failure).

In addition to physical stimuli, psychological stimuli are also recognized in the reactional concept of stress.

Relational Concept of Stress

The main thought of the load/ stimulus-strain model which is widely popular in Germany (Belastung-Beanspruchungskonzept) is that not every load leads to a strain.
Loading is defined as the entirety of all detectable and external influences on people, whereas strain is the direct effect of the stress in the individual depending on the individual coping mechanisms.
Therefore, individual stress is the result of stimulus and strain.

Transactional Concepts of Stress

Stress is experienced in many ways. The transactional concepts of stress therefore emphasize the appraisal to evaluate sources of stress.

Lazarus Transactional Concept of Stress

“Your perception of how well you can cope with a potentially stressful event determines in part whether the event will activate a physical stress response.”
The Lazarus/ Folkman model of stress differentiates between three level of the appraisal of stress.
Primary appraisal involves determining whether the stressor poses a threat. Secondary appraisal involves the individual’s evaluation of the resources or coping strategies at his or her disposal for addressing any perceived threats. The process of reappraisal is ongoing and involves continually reappraising both the nature of the stressor and the resources available for responding to the stressor.”

Based on the continuous adjustment of the individual this theory lacks the possibility to gain forecasting results and therefore can’t tested in empirical studies.

Bambergs Work Psychological Model of Stress

In addition to Lazarus model focusing on the individual, Bamberg established the work-psychological model of stress to differentiate between individual factors (personality, illness etc.)for stress and organizational factors (intensity of work, noise, heat etc.) of stress as well as individual (social competence etc) and organizational ressources (control, frame of action, organization) for coping with stress.

Work Related Stressors

The model differentiates between task related, work related, physical, social and organizational stressors.
Since the classification can be hard sometimes Zapf/Semmer differentiate further between limits of regulation like disruptions of focus, overwhelming of regulation like time pressure and uncertainty of regulation like complex planning and ambiguity as well as social stressors like mobbing and conflict.

Work Related Ressources

Resources are potentials, directly affecting the health and well-being and are therefore helpful in coping with stress.
The main researched resource is the sense of control.

Causes of Stress

Hence there are four main factors for stress:

1. Time factors
2. Intra-personal factors
3. Situational factors
4. Expectational factors

Technostress coined by the psychologist Craig Brod and describing the inability to use technology in a healthy way is a special further cause of stress.

Tarafdar determined five stressors which lead to techno stress:

-Techno- overload(working faster and longer)
-Techno- invasion (working life and private life merge)
-Techno-complexity (learning new technologies)
-Techno-insecurity (loss of jobs due to automatization)
-Techno-uncertainty (confusion and lack of knowledge)

Technological competence as well as individual personal characteristics have a high influence whether technologies enhance the potential of stress or not.
Organizations can limit the amount of techno stress especially through educational programs. Furthermore a good social connection between executives and employees is able to limit the long term effects of technostress.

Symptoms of Stress

David Fontana grounded the symptoms of stress in his book “Managing Stress” in three main categories: cognitive symptoms, emotional symptoms, and behavioral symptoms.
Fontana’s categorization following, stress can manifest itself in a wide range of symptoms. The list below doesn’t attempt to be in any kind conclusive and is therefore a merely attempt to group the most common symptoms of stress in these categories. Please be aware that these symptoms aren’t limited on being a symptom of stress but can also indicate other illnesses.

Cognitive Symptoms of Stress

Cognitive symptoms of stress include:

• Problems to focus
• Problems to memorize
• Confusion
• Problems to decide
• Repeating thoughts
• Racing thoughts
• Mental health issues

Emotional Symptoms of Stress

Emotional symptoms of stress include:

• Angst
• Loss of interest
• Sadness
• Anger
• Impatience
• Overreaction
• Mood shifts and sensibility
• Feeling numb
• Feeling overwhelmed
• Feeling pressured
• Low self esteem

Behavioral Symptoms of Stress

Behavioral symptoms of stress include:

• cynicism
• loss of interest in cooperation
• no interest in spending time with others
• pacing
• nail biting
• self doubting
• low self confidence
• pessimism
• limited productivity
• limited discipline

Other Medical Relevant Symptoms of Stress

Furthermore, stress can manifest itself in other medical symptoms like the following:

• headache
• muscular tensions
• mouth dryness
• chest pain
• irregular heartbeat
• shortbreathness
• sweatiness
• problems to sleep
• loss of appetite
• stomach pain
• loss of sex drive as well as difficulty with sexual arousal/orgasm
• eating too much
• tendency to consume alcohol/ drugs
• tendency to get ill as well as a better immune system response
• lack of motivation
• skin problems
• dry throat
• clenching teeth
• overweight
• aging
  

  Stress-Test

If you are not sure if your symptoms are based on stress, how much stress you really experience and in what way it limits your productivity- you can make a free perceived stress test.

Furthermore the official Maslach Burnout Inventory Test can give you some valuable insights whether you encountered problems with long-term stress,

Both citated test have gained the harsh critics of psychologist, whereas the first one just attempts to give you an idea and inspiration of your “stress-load” the last rather scientific validated test is the only test that is able to measure the long-term effects of stress in the context of the well criticized reactionary theory of stress.

The relationship between stress and depression

With a predisposition to depression, even a small amount of stress can cause people on the depression spectrum to be closer to depression.
Predispositions can be genetic. At the same time, neurotransmitter dysregulation and dysregulation of the stress system like high cortisol levels, hormonal fluctuations, damage to the brain, chronic pain or a disease (thyroid, anemia, B12 deficiency, etc.) and certain medications can promote or mimic depression. However, pessimistic attitudes, low self-esteem, neuroticism, childhood experiences, abuse, depressed parents, or poverty also encourage depression.
The risk of depression can be countered with the correct handling of stress and the establishment of protective factors, because the control a person has over their own life is crucial for their psychological and physical health.

The Relationship between Stress and Burnout

Burnout is a medically diagnosed state of exhaustion, which reduces the individual performance extremely. It leads to emotional exhaustion as well as depersonalization and reduced performance.
After the initial joy, people with burnout experience the feeling of being stuck which leads to frustration and apathy. The final stage of burnout is the intervention.

Coping with Stress

Coping is the attempt to overcome problems and difficulties

Coping requires to monitor threating stimuli – especially when the threat is unpredictable in order to block sensations, override thoughts and stop emotions with the goal of shifting attention.

We differentiate between instrumental coping (problems) and palliative coping (emotional). Whereas instrumental coping focuses on the change of situation, emotional coping is the regulation of the own emotions focusing on the effects and not the causes of stress.
Instrumental coping has often better effects, but all in all emotional and instrumental coping go hand in hand.

All in all coping is discussed as a form of work-life-balance and therefore health.

Antonovskys salutogenic model empasisis what people do right to facilitate health-by asking about the origins of health and is therefore a health continuum approach advocated by proponents of the biopsychosical model.
In addition to positive psychology salutogenic health lays its foundation on the sense of coherence consisting of understanding, manageability (wish to cope with life events and build positive life experiences.) and purpose.

Organizational stress prevention can therefore consist of actions towards a better qualification (training), structure of work (feedback, goal setting, job redesign, hiring processes), structure of requirements (reduction of uncertainty, breaks etc.) as well as through actions of stressmangement (meditation, wellness etc.).

Individual stress prevention consists of recovery- which is necessary due to the depletion of resources in terms of effort. (effort recovery model by Meijman/Mulder) in order to keep the resources (theory of resource conservation).A huge depletion of resources can lead to a spiral of loss, whereas spirals of win/gain are possible too.
Individual stress prevention can consist of a variety of practices.

Almer’s model of recovery phases differentiates between three phases of recovery: distance- regeneration and orientation.
Whereas the distancing process is valuable to gain mentally distance from work, the real recovery happens in the regeneration phase, where the orientation phase is a form a activation for the following strain/stress.
The need for recovery is highly individual- but a lack of recovery leads to recovery problems in the form of quantitative (misbalance between recovery and stress) or qualitative (ineffective recovery) problems.
A lack of attempt to recover or prevalence in the environment (due dates) as well as job stressors a daily hassles can hinder recovery.
Hence organizations promote recovery in form of breaks, weekends, vacation.
But individuals need to put their own health and recovery in their own hands as well and need to find personal strategies to cope with stress.

Summary

In her TED talk “How to make stress your friend”, the psychologist Kelly McGonigal presents a study according to which people who reported having experienced enormous stress in the last year have a 43% higher chance of dying – but only if they, the stress felt as negative. However, when people change their view of stress – even finding stress helpful – stress no longer has the negative physical effects ascribed to it.
It’s not about avoiding stress at all costs – but becoming better at dealing with stress.
Stress is part of every adventure. It’s the place of growth and meaning.

It’s not the load that breaks you down. It’s the way you carry it.
C.S. Lewis

Refrences and further reading material:

• Albrecht, K. (1979) Stress and the manager, 1st edition, New York: Simon and Schuster
• Anxiety
• Better Path to High Performance
• Chronic Stress
• Coping with Stress
• Depression
• Embrace Stress
• Happiness
• Harrington, R.(2012) Stress, New York: Wadsworth
• Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper& Row
• Muraven, M. & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 247-259
• Peince, J. (2013) Almost depressed. 1st edition, New York: Hazelden
• Signs of Stress
• Weiss,L. (2018) How We Work, 1st edition, New York: Harper Wave